Chinese Folk Heroes: Guan Yu—Man or God
(关羽)
5 min read
Guan Yu (关羽, 160–220 CE), a general of the late Eastern Han dynasty (东汉) and the Three Kingdoms period (c. 180–280 CE), was so lionized in the centuries after his death that he was eventually deified. He is still depicted in folklore and traditional drama as an icon of bravery and yiqi (义气)—a code of honor that places brotherhood and integrity above life itself. He is further revered in folk religion and honored in temples across China and Southeast Asia. In a world of shifting fortunes, he is the man who will never betray you; hence, he is worshipped by everyone from police officers, firefighters, and soldiers to gangsters and businessmen.
The Records of the Three Kingdoms (三国志, c. 280s), the principal historiographical text of the period, highlights his fearlessness and combat skills, though details of his early life are scarce. He is said to have practiced martial arts from a young age. At nineteen, Guan Yu fled his home after killing a local bully who had assaulted a village girl. During his years fighting peasant rebellions, he met Liu Bei (刘备) and Zhang Fei (张飞), a warlord and his general. One well-known story recounts how Liu, Guan, and Zhang became sworn brothers by taking an oath in a peach orchard near present-day Beijing (北京). This scene is famously depicted in a painting by Sekkan Sakurai (1715–1790) (top image). Their unshakable loyalty to one another has since become a lasting symbol of virtue in Chinese culture.
Liu Bei rose to prominence by capitalizing on his claimed descent from the Han imperial family—based in part on sharing the same surname—by gathering loyal followers such as Guan Yu and Zhang Fei, and by following the strategic counsel of Zhuge Liang (诸葛亮). These efforts culminated in securing territories in present-day Sichuan (四川), enabling him to establish the Kingdom of Shu Han (蜀汉) in 221 CE, in direct rivalry with the stronger states of Wei and Wu (魏, 吴), thus defining the Three Kingdoms period.
During this intensely competitive era, Guan Yu was dispatched on numerous military campaigns across a vast region. The map below, photographed at the Yuncheng Museum (运城博物馆), traces his movements—from his birthplace to his meeting with Liu Bei and Zhang Fei, and onward to his many battles.
Like most heroes in history, the end of Guan’s life was tragic and heart-wrenching. In 219 AD, Guan Yu and his troops were ambushed by an army of the Kingdom of Wu in a place called Maicheng (麦城). After a fierce fight, Guan and his son were captured and were beheaded after refusing to surrender. Today, “defeated at Maicheng” (败走麦城) has become the Chinese equivalent to the phrase “meeting one’s Waterloo.”
After his death, Guan Yu began to be worshipped locally in Jingzhou (荆州), where he died, as a restless spirit or a local protector. By the Tang dynasty (618—907), Buddhist temples began adopting him as a guardian deity for his supernatural power to protect the temple.
Following Tang, the Song dynasty (960—1279) faced constant military threats from northern and western nomadic empires. The Song court needed to promote loyalty to the state and unyielding integrity to bolster morale and legitimacy. In 1102, Guan Yu was bestowed the honorific of Gong (公, meaning lord) and then Di (帝, meaning king) and he has since been known as Guan Gong (关公) or Guan Di (关帝).
The first printed version of the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三国演义) appeared in 1522. This literary work further cemented Guan Yu’s image in the popular consciousness as the perfect embodiment of “yiqi.”
The Records of the Three Kingdoms and the Ming novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms present two vastly different versions of Guan Yu. The Records is a concise historical text, while Romance is a dramatic novel that elevates Guan Yu from a talented but flawed general into a demigod of loyalty and righteousness. Records highlight his fearlessness. However, his image was amply embellished in Romance, which dramatizes events like slaying six generals while penetrating five defense-gates (过五关斩六将). Yet, there is no record of Guan Yu fighting his way through five gates or slaying six generals to return to Liu Bei.
Beyond martial valor, his unwavering loyalty to Liu Bei and moral integrity transformed him into an icon of righteousness. This blend of historically-recorded valor and literary embellishment led to his deification in folk religion as the Saint of War.
Today, Guan Yu’s image is cemented by Romance and further deified in folk religion. Due to his unswerving loyalty, faultless righteousness and matchless bravery, Guan later became one of the best-known Chinese historical figures not only in China, but also throughout most of East and Southeast Asia and among ethnic Chinese around the world. In folklores and traditional dramas, Guan Yu is depicted with highly stylized, symbolic traits that emphasize his loyalty, righteousness, and superhuman martial prowess. On stage, he almost always appears with a red face, a long, magnificent beard, and wielding a Crescent Blade (青龙偃月刀, images below). His movements are deliberate and majestic, conveying immense inner power.
In folk religion, he is worshipped as Guan Gong or Guan Di (images below), a deity who protects against evil spirits and upholds justice. He is often deified in shrines in professions that require bravery and fairness such the military, police, firefighting, and businesses. For example, in Hong Kong, a shrine to Guan Yu can be found in every police and firefighting station, restaurant, and gambling den (second image below). He is honored in over a hundred Guan Yu temples in China and in dozens of temples in Southeast Asia and Korea.
Today, Guan Yu’s image is cemented by Romance and further deified by folk religion. Due to his unswerving loyalty, faultless righteousness, and matchless bravery, Guan Yu became one of the best-known Chinese folk hero figures not only in China, but also throughout most of Asia and among ethnic Chinese around the world.