The Forgotten Liangzhu
(被遗忘了的良渚)
5 min read
Over half a dozen Neolithic cultures once dotted the vast expanse of what is now China, particularly along its two great river systems—the Yangtze (长江) and the Yellow (黄河) Rivers. The ruins of Liangzhu (良渚), named after a local community near present-day Hangzhou in the Yangtze Delta, were first identified in the 1930s, when jade artifacts were unearthed during road construction. In the following decades, thousands of exquisitely crafted jade relics were discovered. The image below shows the early Liangzhu archaeological site. The Liangzhu culture, dated by archaeologists to between 3300 and 2300 BCE, stands out as one of the most advanced late-Neolithic cultures in the world. In recognition of its global significance, it was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2019. I visited Liangzhu in 2026 as part of my quest to understand the emergence of early Chinese civilization.
In 2006, excavations revealed the largest and earliest known walled city in ancient China. The city features remnants of massive walls, an inner and outer city spanning a combined area of 6.3 square kilometers, and burial sites from which more than 4,000 jade objects have been excavated. Furthermore, by the time of my visit, more than 1,000 settlements had been identified across the broad area surrounding the city.
Liangzhu was neither the first Neolithic society along the Yangtze River nor the last. However, its defining characteristic was its unmatched water-management infrastructure—including large reservoirs for flood retention and water storage; 30 kilometers of artificial canals, moats, and ditches integrated with natural waterways; an urban drainage system; and numerous gates regulating the flow of canals running in and out of the urban center. No evidence of pack animals has been found, suggesting that waterways were essential for transportation, trade, and the movement of construction and agricultural materials.
This multifunctional water-management system protected the urban center from seasonal flooding, enabled the movement of goods and people via waterways, and supported intensive rice agriculture capable of sustaining a large population. One excavated granary alone contained more than ten tons of carbonized rice. At its peak, the city is estimated to have supported a population of around 35,000. Vernon Scarborough, professor of anthropology at the University of Cincinnati, observed after visiting the site: “There’s nothing in the world…that is as monumental in terms of water management—or for that matter, any kind of management—that occurs so early in history. It’s an engineered landscape that is second to none, given its antiquity.”
The scale and coordination of Liangzhu’s water-management system required advanced political organization capable of mobilizing thousands of laborers across multiple seasons and years. The system likely functioned both as a practical resource and as a symbol of political legitimacy, with control over water reinforcing elite authority. Chinese archaeologist Liu Jianguo (刘建国) assesses the water-management system as “…a key reason for Liangzhu’s prosperity. As its citizens managed water well, their agricultural production promoted social division of labor, while social stratification gradually emerged, leading to the birth of civilization.” (水利管理是良渚繁荣的关键原因. 由于城里的人很好地管理了水, 他们获得了收成, 这促进了社会分工. 社会阶层差异逐渐出现, 导致了文明的诞生.)
The ancient city itself—with rammed-earth walls, elite ceremonial areas, and an urban core situated on elevated ground protected by hydraulic works—demonstrates advanced planning and engineering. At the heart of the city lay a palatial precinct dominated by an immense man-made trapezoidal earthen mound. These remarkable urban and hydraulic infrastructures point to sophisticated engineering knowledge, highly organized labor, and strong centralized authority.
While Neolithic Liangzhu lacked a writing system, hundreds of distinct incised symbols (left image below) point to the early formation of written communication. For example, scratched onto a pot is a string of symbols (right image below) that can be interpreted, from left to right, as “hunting activity using bow and arrow has resulted in an animal, which has been cooked and eaten, leaving behind the skeleton”—perhaps the earliest appearance of written expression in Liangzhu.
Thus, much of what we know comes from burial jade objects. While many tombs were modest and contained few grave goods, others were richly furnished with jade artifacts of exceptional refinement, indicating a pronounced social hierarchy. Like silent storytellers, these relics reveal the beliefs, social structure, and technological sophistication of a society that flourished five millennia ago.
Many Liangzhu jade objects feature intricate motifs, including animal masks or so-called “divine faces,” believed to represent deities or supernatural beings. The placement of finely crafted jade in elite burials underscores its role as a symbol of power, authority, and ritual legitimacy. The advanced techniques of carving, drilling, and polishing likely required metal tools, while the abundance and standardization of jade objects reflect organized labor and centralized governance. Because jade was not locally available, its presence also points to long-distance trade networks.
The discovery transformed scholarly understanding of early Chinese civilization. For many years, the Yellow River region was regarded as the sole cradle of Chinese civilization. Liangzhu demonstrated that the Yangtze Delta also produced highly advanced Neolithic societies with sophisticated engineering, intensive agriculture, urban planning, and centralized political coordination.
Despite being among the most advanced late-Neolithic cultures in the world, Liangzhu collapsed abruptly around 2300 BCE. Paleo-climatic and archaeological evidence suggests that the decline occurred during a short but unusually wet period, likely resulting in catastrophic flooding. Liangzhu’s reliance on rice agriculture made it especially vulnerable to inundation, leading to food shortages. Human skeletal remains from this period show signs of malnutrition, violence, and a disproportionately high number of younger individuals. The conspicuous absence of jade objects in later burials suggests depleted resources and a breakdown of social order. Over time, Liangzhu’s significance faded from memory, though its former grandeur remained buried beneath the landscape.
Although Liangzhu collapsed, its cultural legacy endured. Elements of Liangzhu culture—especially jade forms and iconography—spread to later Neolithic and early Bronze Age cultures, including Sanxingdui and the Xia (夏). This diffusion was likely facilitated by China’s extensive river systems, which enabled the movement of goods such as jade, pottery, and agricultural products. Climatic shifts toward the end of the Liangzhu period may also have driven migration, further disseminating its technologies, traditions, and farming practices.
While the later Shang Dynasty (商) is best known for its complex political system, Liangzhu predates it by nearly a millennium and stands out for its advanced urban planning, social organization, water management, and artistic achievements. It represents a foundational culture in the long development of Chinese civilization.
Today, the Liangzhu City ruins and excavated artifacts are displayed at the Archaeological Ruins of Liangzhu City Park (良渚古城遗址公园, images below) and the Liangzhu Museum (良渚博物院). The opening image shows the entrance to the museum and its fitting, water-themed surroundings. Located within easy day-trip distance from Suzhou and Shanghai, the museum houses a comprehensive collection of Liangzhu artifacts, including jade relics, stone and pottery tools, and other archaeological discoveries.
Additional resource for readers:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Bich0hnS7I
Photo credit: UNESCO World Heritage Convention; Baidu.com