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More than a thousand years after Sima Qian (司马迁) completed the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji, 史记) in 91 BCE, an equally groundbreaking work of historiography was produced during the Song Dynasty (宋朝). In 1084 CE, Zizhi Tongjian (资治通鉴, Comprehensive Mirror to Aid Governance) was completed by Sima Guang (司马光, 1019–1086; opening image), a towering figure among the scholar-officials (士大夫) of his time. In 1065, he was commissioned by Emperor Yingzong of Song (宋英宗) to compile a comprehensive history of China for the explicit purpose of advising the ruler.

After nineteen years of labor, Sima Guang presented this monumental work to Yingzong’s successor, Emperor Shenzong (神宗). Consisting of nearly three million Chinese characters in 294 chapters, the Tongjian traces cycles of unity, fragmentation, conquest, collapse, and restoration from the beginning of the Warring States period (战国, 403 BCE) to the founding of the Song Dynasty in 959 CE. It spans 1,362 years across sixteen dynasties. Although intended for an audience of one—the emperor—it synthesizes material from hundreds of earlier histories, annals, and records, presenting a strictly chronological account of political, military, and diplomatic events. Its explicit aim was not merely to record the past, but to extract lessons from historical successes and failures to guide effective governance.

The title Tongjian, coined by Emperor Shenzong, reveals the work’s core purpose. Zi (资) means “to aid,” zhi (治) “governance,” and tongjian (通鉴) “a comprehensive mirror.” Hence its common English title, Comprehensive Mirror to Aid Governance. Sima Guang intended the work to illuminate the causes of dynastic rise and fall, the consequences of wise and unwise policies, and the virtues and vices of historical actors. It does not simply recount events; it analyzes them to answer a fundamental question: how should a ruler govern a state and preserve long-term stability?

The political context of the project was crucial. The Song Dynasty followed more than a century of upheaval and fragmentation, including the seventy-year period known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (五代十国). The Tongjian was conceived as a corrective—a guide to improving governance, preventing disorder, and avoiding the cycles of fragmentation that had plagued the preceding century.

In spirit, Sima Guang followed the example of Emperor Taizong of Tang (唐太宗, 598–649), who famously declared: “Using bronze as a mirror, one can straighten one’s attire; using history as a mirror, one can understand the rise and fall of states” [1]. On learning from the past, the Tongjian itself states: “Examine the rise and decline of former ages to understand the successes and failures of the present” [2]. What follows is a small sample of the lessons articulated throughout the work:

• On Zhuge Liang’s (诸葛亮, 181–234 CE) governance of the State of Shu (蜀国): “He comforted the people, established rules and standards, streamlined official posts, and restrained the use of authority. He governed with sincerity and public-mindedness… Those who were loyal and beneficial to the state were rewarded even if they were his enemies; those who violated the law or were negligent were punished even if they were close to him… As a result, everyone within the state both respected and loved him. Though his laws were strict, there was no resentment, because his intentions were fair and his admonitions clear” [3].
• On the people’s livelihood: “A government cannot neglect the livelihood of the people. Agriculture is the foundation of the world, the lifeblood of the people, and the source of a state’s wealth or poverty” [4].
• On Tang Emperor Taizong: “Taizong used force to end chaos, but benevolence to heal its wounds” [5].
• On war: “Even a great state will perish if it favors war; yet, if the threat of war was forgotten during peace time, the state would surely be in peril” [6].
• On trust: “Trustworthiness is the greatest treasure of a ruler. A state is sustained by its people, and the people are sustained by trust. Without trust, a ruler cannot command the people; without the people, the state cannot endure” [7].
• On military strategy: “Place an army in desperate circumstances, and it will fight to survive; put it on ground of annihilation, and it will live” [8].
• On indulgence: “Extravagant luxury, indulgence in wine and pleasure, or excessive ornamentation—any one of these can bring about the ruin of a state” [9].

Large-scale printing emerged during the Song Dynasty, and soon after the Tongjian’s completion, printed editions circulated widely among scholars and officials. Rulers and intellectuals of the Song and later dynasties held the work in the highest esteem, regarding it as an indispensable manual of statecraft and moral governance. Emperor Shenzong praised it, saying: “It exhaustively records all matters, good and evil alike. Its purpose is to instruct and enlighten the ruler, serving as a great mirror and a foundational teaching” [10]. For the next millennium, assessments of the Tongjian remained remarkably consistent in their admiration.

As a pioneering historical masterpiece, the Tongjian exerted profound influence on both governance and historiography. It became essential reading for candidates preparing for the civil service examinations (keju, 科举考试) and shaped elite education well into the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). Beyond imparting historical knowledge, it trained generations of bureaucrats in political judgment and Confucian ethical reasoning. Emperors and officials alike used the Tongjian to avoid past errors and to emulate exemplary models of rule.

More than a historical chronicle, the Tongjian stands as a monumental work of statecraft, philosophy, and literature. For over a thousand years, it articulated a governing philosophy grounded in moral responsibility and historical awareness, shaping the Confucian tradition of “using history as a mirror.” Because imperial histories were often commissioned to evaluate the successes and failures of earlier dynasties, the Tongjian became the most complete and influential expression of this tradition. It remains an indispensable source for the periods it covers, and Sima Guang is remembered for creating China’s most enduring and authoritative manual of governance.

[1] “以铜为镜可以正衣冠, 以史为镜可以知兴替.”

[2] “鉴前世之兴衰, 考当今之得失.”

[3] “撫百姓, 示儀軌, 約官職, 從權制, 開誠心, 布公道… 盡忠益時者雖讎必賞, 犯法怠慢者雖親必罰… 終於邦域之內, 咸畏而愛之, 刑政雖峻而無怨者, 以其用心平而勸戒明也.”

[4] “盖民之生, 不可不恤也. 夫农, 天下之本也, 生民之命, 国之贫富系焉.”

[5] “太宗以武拨乱, 以仁胜残.”

[6] “囯虽大, 好战必亡; 天下虽平, 忘战必危.”

[7] “夫信者, 人君之大宝也. 国保于民, 民保于信. 非信无以使民, 非民无以守国.”

[8] “陷之死地而后生, 置之亡地而后存.”

[9] “穷奢极欲, 甘酒嗜音, 峻宇雕墙, 有一于此, 未或不亡.”

[10] “善惡之事, 無不備載, 蓋所以訓啟人主, 為元龜大訓也.”

Photo credit: Baidu.com