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For nearly two thousand years, China was the world’s largest trading nation. This series of articles presents a broad-stroke overview of that history in three parts: Silk Road trade, maritime trade, and the opium trade.

The establishment of the ancient Silk Road (古丝绸之路) is generally dated to around 130 BCE, following the diplomatic missions of Zhang Qian (张骞), a Chinese envoy dispatched by the Han court (汉朝) to seek alliances with Central Asian states against the nomadic Xiongnu tribes (匈奴). For more than a millennium, merchants carried silk, jade, paper, and porcelain westward from China, while horses, gold, silver, and glassware traveled eastward. As a result, Chinese silk became a highly coveted luxury in Central Asia, Persia, and Rome.

Traversing deserts, steppes, and mountain ranges, this network of routes extended some 6,400 kilometers, linking the Han capital Chang’an (长安)—modern-day Xi’an (西安)—to Central Asia, India, Persia, and eventually Europe. The term Seidenstraße (“Silk Road”) was coined in 1877 by the German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen. The opening image shows the Silk Road as reconstructed by von Richthofen on a modern map.

Han

The Han Dynasty (汉朝, 206 BCE–220 CE) left behind rich records of trade between China and lands to the west. Chang’an, the empire’s capital and trade hub, facilitated extensive commercial and cultural exchange between China and the rest of Asia. Chinese silk became a prized commodity in Rome. Although the Han and Roman Empires were only vaguely aware of each other, both recognized the other as a great civilization. The Chinese referred to the Roman Empire as Da Qin (大秦), while the Romans called China Serica—the land of silk.

The Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji, 史记, 91 BCE) notes: “Dayuan, Daxia, and Anxi (in today’s Central Asia and Iran) are all large states with many exotic goods. Their indigenous people are somewhat similar to the Chinese… Their lands produce no silk or lacquer, nor do they know how to cast iron weapons” [1]. The Book of Han (Hanshu, 汉书, 111 CE) records: “From Dayuan west to Parthia (from today’s Tajikistan to Iran), though their languages differ, they generally understand each other… The people have deep-set eyes and heavy beards. They excel in commerce and haggle over pennies” [2].

In the early centuries of the Silk Road, the kingdoms of Persia and Central Asia ranked among the most sophisticated and influential societies of the ancient world. They were not merely intermediaries but driving forces behind Silk Road trade. The Parthians, for example, controlled the flow of goods between Han China and the Roman Empire, using standardized coinage to facilitate exchange and profiting as middlemen. While silk originated in China, Central Asian workshops became adept at weaving it into new patterns that blended Chinese, Persian, and Hellenistic designs. The region also supplied prized commodities such as steppe horses, camels, carpets, and precious stones.

Tang

By the time of the Sui (隋, 581–618) and Tang (唐, 618–907) Dynasties, following nearly four centuries of political fragmentation and warfare, Silk Road trade experienced a major revival under a reunified China. Far to the west, Constantinople—the capital of the Byzantine Empire and modern-day Istanbul—stood at the strategic crossroads of Europe and Asia, serving as a major hub for East–West trade. Goods transported along the Silk Road often passed through the city before being distributed to markets in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.

The early Tang period’s strong central government, political stability, economic prosperity, and religious tolerance greatly facilitated commerce and interaction with western regions, ushering in an era of unprecedented Silk Road prosperity.

The Silk Road transmitted not only goods but also the technologies that produced them, including silk-making, glassmaking, papermaking, book production, gunpowder, and musical instruments. Cultural exchanges also flourished in music, dance, painting, architecture, cuisine, sports, medicine, and language. Many Chinese musical instruments, including the lute (pipa, 琵琶) and the spiked fiddle (erhu, 二胡), originated in Central Asia.

A Tang record on foreign tributaries notes that “The State of Dashi (today’s Arabia) sent envoys presenting horses, jeweled belts, and other treasures” [3]. Tang Huiyao (唐会要, 961) records: “The State of Persia produces amber, agate, pearls, glass, gallnuts, and medicinal herbs. They excel in casting coins and have a system in which ten units equal one coin” [4]. The Persian geographer Ibn Khordadbeh mentioned silk, paper, and ceramics from Tang China reaching Baghdad.

Archaeological excavations across Central Asia, China, and Southeast Asia have uncovered Persian, Byzantine, and Arabian coins alongside Chinese silk, ceramics, and metalwork. Roman glassware has been found in China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan, while Chinese glass imitating Western styles has also been discovered, demonstrating the reciprocal flow of technology.

Beyond Tang

During the first half of the 10^th century, between the fall of the Tang and the founding of the Song Dynasty (宋朝, 960–1279), China once again suffered political fragmentation and warfare. With the decline of major trade hubs such as Chang’an and the absence of organized protection, overland routes became increasingly dangerous due to banditry. In response, merchants sought safer alternatives, and maritime trade through the Indian Ocean began to flourish.

Although the Song Dynasty restored internal stability, it faced persistent threats from nomadic powers. The Western Xia state (西夏) occupied the Hexi Corridor (河西走廊)—a narrow mountain passage critical to the Silk Road. Loss of control over these overland routes forced the Song to place greater emphasis on maritime trade, the subject of the next article in this series. The Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), though relatively brief compared to the Han and Tang, had a profound impact on Silk Road trade. By unifying much of Eurasia, the Mongols ended centuries of regional conflict and facilitated long-distance commerce. They established a network of relay stations providing horses, food, and lodging, greatly accelerating travel. With safer passage, trade in silk, spices, porcelain, and other luxury goods surged among China, Persia, the Middle East, and Europe.

The History of Yuan (Yuan Shi, 元史, 1370) records that “Merchants from the Western Regions arrived in Gansu, bringing pearls, jade, camels, and horses. The imperial court ordered an assessment of their value and compensation for the merchants” [5]. The Records of Foreign Lands (Dao Yi Zhi Lue, 岛夷志略, 1339) states: “Persians are skilled merchants. Every year they come to China to trade colored silk, exchanging it for porcelain and tea before returning” [6]. The Persian historian Rashid al-Din’s Compendium of Chronicles (14^th century) notes that Chinese merchants traveled overland to Khorasan and Iran with silk and horses, returning with Arab and Indian goods. In 1354, papal envoy Giovanni de Marignolli reported seeing merchants from India, Persia, and Europe trading in great volume in Khanbaliq (modern Beijing). These accounts attest to the vitality of Silk Road trade during the Yuan era.

Challenges of the Silk Road

The Silk Road’s complex routes crossed high, arid terrain, with scarce water supplies and limited forage for caravan animals. Historical records vividly describe the political instability, natural hazards, and psychological hardships faced by merchants and explorers. The Great Tang Records of the Western Regions (大唐西域记, 646 CE) laments: “Rivers of sand are vast and treacherous, with scorching heat and demonic winds; no one escapes unharmed… There is only desolation, devoid of human or bird. At night, demonic fires glitter like stars; by day, fierce winds hurl sand like sudden rain” [7]. Marco Polo similarly described eerie sounds in the desert—caused by shifting sands—that travelers feared as supernatural phenomena.

Yet Silk Road trade endured for more than a millennium due to several factors. Nomadic tribes, despite their role in warfare and political fragmentation, also helped maintain and safeguard the routes. Their deep knowledge of the terrain, ability to navigate harsh environments, and provision of transport animals were indispensable. Moreover, the Silk Road was not a single continuous route but a flexible network that adapted to changing geopolitical conditions. Rather than traveling the entire distance themselves, merchants relied on relay trade systems in which goods changed hands multiple times, making the system resilient and sustainable.

Closing remarks

Silk Road trade played a pivotal role in shaping China’s position in the world—not only economically, but also culturally, technologically, and diplomatically. Buddhism, Islam, music, and other cultural influences entered China via the Silk Road, while Chinese philosophies, technologies, and practices spread outward. The result was a legacy of hybrid cultures that continues to define Eurasia today.