However, the primary engine driving international trade was Chinese demand for exotic and rare commodities: spices such as cloves, nutmeg, mace, and pepper from the Spice Islands, India, and Southeast Asia; incense including frankincense and myrrh from Arabia and benzoin from Southeast Asia; sandalwood from Southeast Asia and India; precious stones and jewels from the Persian Gulf, India, and Sri Lanka; medicinal substances such as rhinoceros horn from Africa; cotton from India; and woolen tapestries from the Middle East and Central Asia.

Han

One of China’s earliest records of maritime trade appears in the Geographic Records of the Book of Han (Hanshu Dili Zhi, 汉书·地理志, 111 CE), which states: “Setting sail from the frontier of Han (the coast of present-day Guangxi Province)… one reached the State of Duyuan (southern Vietnam) in about five months; then the State of Yilumo (southern Myanmar) in another four months; and finally the State of Shenli (central Myanmar) after more than twenty days. From there, one reached the State of Fugandulu (central Myanmar) on foot in about ten days. Sailing from Fugandulu for about two months brought one to the State of Huangzhi (Chennai)… Its land is vast, its population numerous, and its exotic products many. They have been sending tribute to China since the time of Emperor Wu of Han (汉武帝)… [Han officials], traded gold and silk to acquire bright pearls, glass, rare stones, and strange objects. The locals supplied them with food and guides, and their ships transported them from place to place. [Han officials] profited from trade, but there were murders, storms, and drownings. The survivors took several years to return” [1].

Indian Ocean maritime trade did not connect directly with Rome; goods were typically transshipped through a chain of intermediaries in Southeast Asia and India. The Han court regarded these voyages more as diplomatic tribute missions than purely commercial enterprises.

Tang

By the Tang Dynasty, the southern port of Guangzhou had developed into a major trade hub. The Records of the Superintendent of Maritime Trade at Guangzhou (广州市舶使录) states: “Guangzhou is the hub for giant ships of the South Seas. From Jiaozhi (Vietnam) to the Lion State (Sri Lanka), masts stand as densely as a forest, and exotic goods are piled mountain-high. Kunlun ships [from Southeast Asia] are laden with fragrant herbs, ivory, and rhinoceros horn. Persian ships are filled with glass, agate, and rosewater. The Superintendent oversees the collection of duties. When a ship drops anchor, he inspects its cargo and takes two-tenths of it to fill the imperial treasury. Where foreign merchants mingle, the scent of perfume fills the streets. At night, lantern light fills the sky, and the sound of bargaining clamors until dawn” [2].

Piecing together multiple records from this era reveals a picture of vibrant maritime exchange. Tang merchants traded silk and porcelain for raw materials in Sumatra, sought pearls and ambergris in the Malay Peninsula, and obtained glassware, coral, and saffron from Arab traders in southern India. Despite the dangers, merchants were drawn to the seas by high profits. Arab sailors, unafraid of winds and waves, navigated towering ships. By this time, the maritime trade network extended from Guangzhou to Vietnam, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, and the Arabian Peninsula, exchanging silk, porcelain, and tea for spices, incense, ivory, gems, and glass. As testimony to the scale of Tang exports, the surviving cargo of an Arab shipwreck from this period included over 60,000 porcelain bowls, 763 inkpots, 915 spice jars, and 1,635 large jugs.

By the late first millennium, China had developed large, sturdy ships equipped with sternpost rudders and watertight bulkheads, providing superior control and seaworthiness for long-distance voyages. Around the same time, the magnetic compass emerged as a transformative navigational tool. Although Chinese ships were often larger and more structurally advanced by the 9^th and 10^th centuries, Arab, Persian, and Indian vessels were more maneuverable and better suited to the monsoon-driven Indian Ocean. Their sailors mastered celestial navigation and monsoon patterns, produced written sailing manuals, and dominated Indian Ocean trade from East Africa to Southeast Asia.

Song and Ming

From 1000 to 1450, the rise of successive empires—the Song, Yuan, and Ming (宋元明)—brought stability to East Asia, while rising consumption fueled Indian Ocean trade. The expansion of Islam further connected diverse Indian Ocean cities, facilitating commerce beyond political and economic forces alone. Shared language, belief systems, and trust among Muslim merchants promoted long-distance trade across vast regions.

Answers from Beyond the Mountains (Lingwai Daida, 岭外代答, 1178 CE) describes the economic geography of Indian Ocean trade during the Song Dynasty: “Among foreign states rich in treasures and goods, none surpasses Dashi (Arabia). It is followed by Shepo (Java) and Sanfoqi (Sumatra), and then the other states. Sanfoqi is the vital hub through which sea routes to all other states pass” [3].

The text also records: “The ships are dozens of zhang (each zhang is about three meters) deep and wide. Merchants divide the space to store their goods, each allotted several feet. Goods are stored below, and merchants sleep above at night. The cargo consists largely of ceramics, with smaller items nested inside larger ones, leaving not an inch of empty space” [4].

Based on customs records, shipwreck archaeology, ceramic production data, and foreign accounts, historians confirm that the volume of Song maritime trade far exceeded that of the Tang. Whereas Tang maritime trade retained a largely tributary character, Song maritime trade became a mass-market enterprise and a major source of state revenue. By this time, seagoing ships with cargo capacities of 100 to 400 metric tons were common. In the late Song period, the port of Quanzhou (泉州) alone might have received over a hundred large ships in a single season.

By the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), China led the world in shipbuilding and navigation, equipping oceangoing vessels with magnetic compasses and star charts. Yet the Ming court imposed Haijin (海禁), or sea bans, severely restricting private maritime trade. Demand for Chinese goods—silk, porcelain, and tea—remained strong, creating a vacuum that fueled smuggling and piracy. Prolonged enforcement of Haijin eroded China’s shipbuilding and navigational expertise and ultimately ceded maritime dominance to European powers.

The voyages of Zheng He (郑和) were a brief exception. Between 1405 and 1433, Zheng He led state-sponsored expeditions to Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean, projecting Chinese influence and bringing foreign goods, envoys, and knowledge back to China. However, the enormous cost of these voyages, combined with internal political pressures, led Emperor Xuande (宣德皇帝) to prohibit further expeditions after Zheng He’s death.

Haijin ushered in an era of isolation. By 1500, the government banned the construction of large ships and ordered oceangoing vessels destroyed. Just as Europe embarked on global expansion, China turned inward—abandoning maritime exploration and forfeiting its early lead, a retreat that contributed to centuries of technological and strategic decline.

[1] “自日南障塞, 徐闻, 合浦, 船行可五月, 有都元国; 又船行可四月, 有邑卢没国; 又船行可二十余日, 有谌离国; 步行可十余日, 有夫甘都卢国. 自夫甘都卢国船行可二月余, 有黄支国… 其州广大, 户口多, 多异物, 自武帝以来皆献见…与应募者俱入海市明珠, 璧流离, 奇石异物, 赍黄金杂缯而往. 所至国皆禀食为耦, 蛮夷贾船, 转送致之. 亦利交易, 剽杀人. 又苦逢风波溺死, 不者数年来还.”

[2] “廣州南海巨舶之湊也. 自交趾至獅子國, 帆檣如林, 珍貨山積. 有崑崙舶, 載香藥, 象牙, 犀角. 有波斯舶, 滿琉璃, 瑪瑙, 薔薇水. 其市舶使, 掌徵榷之務, 下碇則檢其貨, 十取其二, 以充內庫. 蕃商雜處, 衣香滿路, 夜則燈火徹天, 通譯者傳其語, 買賣之聲喧囂達旦.”

[3] “诸蕃国之富盛多宝货者, 莫如大食国, 其次阇婆国, 其次三佛齐国, 其次乃诸国耳. 三佛齐国者, 诸国海道往来之要冲也.”

[4] “船舶深阔各数十丈, 商人分占贮货, 人得数尺许, 下以贮物, 夜卧其上. 货多陶器, 大小相套, 无少隙地.”

Photo credit: Indian Ocean trade routes (Obsidian Soul, Public Domain)