In the year 629 CE during the Tang Dynasty (唐朝), Xuanzang (玄奘), a Buddhist monk, set out from the Tang capital Chang’an (长安), present day Xi’an (西安), on a pilgrimage to India. This journey took him along routes that merchants used in trading with the Western Regions (西域) and what are now known as the Silk Road (丝绸之路). Xuanzang returned to Chang’an 17 years later. His epochal journey was later fictionalized in the Journey to the West (西游记) nearly a millennium later in the 16^th century and this book remains widely-read to this day. However, the protagonist in the Journey was not Xuanzang, but the mythical Sun Wukong (孙悟空)—a macaque with supernatural powers—who was Xuanzang’s disciple and body-guard during his pilgrimage. The Journey has made Wukong an iconic superhero in Chinese pop culture.

Even though it is unclear where and when it originated, Wukong’s mythical life did not start with the Journey and was likely from earlier folklore. Among the thousands of cave murals in Dunhuang (敦煌), a major crossroad town in the Silk Road, a 13^th century painting (see feature image) shows Xuanzang on his journey to India. The depiction of Wukong accompanying Xuanzang on this pilgrimage was 300 years before the fictionalized Journey. Moreover, Wukong has many similarities with the Hindu deity Hanuman, who first appeared in Indian mythology as early as 1500 BCE. Hanuman is a symbol of bravery and devotion and has many special powers similar to Wukong’s, including the ability to leap and fly without wings.

According to the Journey, Wukong’s life began atop the Mountain of Flowers and Fruits (花果山), where over centuries, the energy from the sun and the moon combined to impregnate a boulder to give birth to a stone monkey. Daring to attain immortality, Wukong left his mountain home to study under a Buddhist master, who anointed him the dharma name Wukong (悟空), which means “realizing emptiness” in reference to Buddhist enlightenment. The surname Sun (孙) is an obvious hint to 猢狲, meaning a “macaque”. He acquired the secrets of immortality and mythical powers from the master, but was finally expelled for showing off his powers.

The Jade Emperor (玉皇大帝), ruler of heaven, was alarmed by Wukong’s power. Following the adage “keep your friends close, but keep your enemies closer”, the Jade Emperor invited Wukong to have a place in heaven as the “Chief Protector of Horses” and later the “Guardian of the Immortal-Peach Grove”. This charade did not last long. Wukong was discovered to have eaten all the ripe peaches that were supposed to be used for a banquet and he was outraged that he was not invited to the banquet. He crashed the banquet hall and ate all the food before the dinner even started. After wreaking havoc in heaven, Wukong was pinned under a mountain as punishment. He stayed there for 500 years until Xuanzang needed a disciple to help him on his pilgrimage to India. 

Wukong is endowed with extraordinary mythical powers. He can effortlessly somersault over 108,000 li (里), about 54,000 kilometers, and summon storms and rain at will, for example. For deception, he can transform himself into 72 different forms, including animals, objects, and even other people. Using his hair, he can clone many copies of himself to assist in combat or other tasks. His weapon—a metal staff that weights 13,500 jin (斤), about 8,000 kilograms—can be shrunk to the size of a needle and tucked behind his ear. Wukong acquired immortality and these mythical powers after studying under the Buddhist master and eating the “Peaches of Immortality” from the Heavenly Garden. Furthermore, after being forge-heated in a crucible for 49 days, Wukong’s body became indestructible and his eyes could look over long distances and see through illusions and obstacles.

Given these supernatural powers, how did a mere mortal like Xuanzang control Wukong? Despite his wit, Wukong was tricked by the Guanyin Buddha (观音) into wearing a golden headband that could only be released when Wukong completed the pilgrimage with Xuanzang and reached Buddhahood. To control Wukong, Xuanzang needed only to recite the “tightening spell” to subdue him by causing an acute headache. 

In accompanying his master on the pilgrimage, Wukong constantly confronted demons and spirits seeking to capture or harm Xuanzang. Wukong was also subjected to punishments by his master, challenges by his fellow sojourners Zhu Bajie (猪八戒) and Sha Wujing (沙悟净), and tests of worldly temptations. Overcoming these challenges was Wukong’s path toward redemption for earlier transgressions and rebelling against Heaven. It also brought enlightenment and transformed himself from a rebel to a devoted spiritual being and he eventually achieved Buddhahood.

While deeply rooted in Chinese traditions, Wukong’s story—emphasizing the universal traits of youth rebellion against traditions, the struggle for self-actualization, and redemption—makes him a beloved figure in many cultures. The Journey has been translated to many languages. In China, the Monkey King is often depicted in operas, films, and art. The Journey draws inspiration from Indian folklores and Wukong shares traits with the Hindu deity Hanuman. Wukong is known as Son Goku (孙悟空) in Japanese and Son O-gong (손오공) in Korean and Wukong has been adopted by these two cultures as their own. In Southeast Asia cultures, such as Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam, the Journey has been adapted and localized. Moreover, Wukong’s story has staying power, and still features in films, animations and video games today. For example, 2024 saw Black Myth: Wukong (image below) received the 2024 Best Action Game award from The Games Awards (TGA), the so-called Oscars of electronic games.